Polity
What is the controversy around the Sambhal mosque?
Recent violence in Sambhal, Uttar Pradesh, has resulted in at least four fatalities and several injuries following a district court’s directive to survey the Shahi Jama Masjid.
Background of the Dispute
- Origin of Claims: A petition led in the Sambhal district court alleges that the 16th-century Jama Masjid was constructed over an ancient Hari Har Mandir. Similar claims have been made about other mosques in Varanasi, Mathura, and Dhar.
- Protected Monument: The Shahi Jama Masjid is recognized as a Monument of National Importance under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904, making the matter sensitive.
- Court-Ordered Survey:
- An initial survey conducted peacefully involved local authorities and mosque committee members.
- A subsequent survey led to violence after petitioners arrived with chanting crowds. Reports of police ring and property damage intensified tensions.
Historical Context of the Jama Masjid
- Construction: Built during Mughal Emperor Babur’s reign (1526–1530) by Mir Hindu Beg, the mosque is a notable example of early Mughal architecture.
- Architectural Significance:
- Located on a hill, the mosque features a dome, arches, and stone masonry resembling the mosque in Budaun.
- It underwent repairs during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
- Historical Debate: Some argue that the mosque’s origins date back to the Tughlaq era, with modifications by Babur.
- Hindu Beliefs: Local traditions claim the mosque incorporates remnants of a Vishnu temple and is linked to Kalki, the tenth avatar of Vishnu.
Legal Context
- Places of Worship Act, 1991: Prohibits the conversion of religious sites and maintains their character as of August 15, 1947, except for the Babri Masjid case. Section 3 of the Act explicitly forbids altering a site’s religious identity.
- Challenges:
- The petition directly contravenes the Act’s provisions.
- Petitioners refer to oral remarks by Justice D.Y. Chandrachud in 2022, suggesting surveys might not violate the Act.
- Pending Supreme Court cases challenge the Act’s validity, with disputes in Varanasi, Mathura, and now Sambhal.
Broader Implications
- Legal Precedents: The case may set critical interpretations of the Places of Worship Act, 1991.
- Historical Accountability: Balancing archaeological studies with communal harmony remains challenging.
- Communal Peace: Ensuring coexistence and preventing violence is vital in a diverse society.
Conclusion
The Sambhal Mosque dispute highlights the complex interplay between legal frameworks, historical claims, and communal sensitivities in India. Addressing such disputes requires careful navigation to preserve societal harmony and uphold constitutional principles.
Questions:
The escalation of violence around disputes over religious sites in India highlights the need for improved conflict resolution mechanisms. Suggest measures to address such communal tensions effectively.
Conversion only for reservation, without ‘actual belief’, a fraud on Constitution: Supreme Court
Why in News?
The Supreme Court clarified that the misuse of reservation policies undermines their core objective: uplifting historically marginalized communities. By allowing benefits for individuals without legitimate claims, the purpose of reservations is defeated.
Overview
The Supreme Court of India recently ruled that religious conversions solely undertaken to gain reservation benefits are unconstitutional, emphasizing that such actions amount to a “fraud on the Constitution.” The court reiterated that genuine conversions should stem from sincere faith and belief, rather than ulterior motives like securing quotas.
SC Reservations and Religion
- Existing Provisions for SC Reservations:
- Scheduled Caste (SC) reservations were introduced to address the social injustices and discrimination caused by untouchability, historically practiced within Hindu society.
- Article 341 empowers the President to specify which castes, races, or tribes qualify as Scheduled Castes.
- Exclusion of Dalit Converts:
- The Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950, limits SC status to Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists.
- Dalits converting to Christianity or Islam are excluded from SC reservations, as these religions historically lack the caste-based discrimination that the provision aims to address.
- Religion-Based Exceptions:
- Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are not subject to religious restrictions for quota benefits.
- Following the Mandal Commission’s recommendations, several Muslim and Christian communities were included in the OBC lists.
Demand for Extending SC Benefits to Dalit Christians and Muslims
- Petitions have been filed in the Supreme Court seeking to remove the religious bar on SC status for Dalit converts to Christianity and Islam.
- In response, the Union Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment formed a three-member commission in October 2022, led by former Chief Justice of India K.G. Balakrishnan, to study the issue.
Previous Panel Recommendations
- Ranganath Misra Commission (2007): Recommended delinking SC status from religion.
- Sachar Committee (2005): Highlighted that Dalit Christians and Muslims remained socially and economically disadvantaged post-conversion.
Case Background
- Details of the Case: The appellant, C. Selvarani, contested a Madras High Court ruling that denied her SC status. Selvarani claimed to belong to the Valluvan caste and practiced Hindu rituals but was later found to have been baptized and engaged in Christian practices.
- Supreme Court Judgment:
- The court upheld the High Court’s decision, rejecting her SC status claim as fraudulent.
- It ruled that her claims lacked evidence of genuine reconversion to Hinduism, highlighting that mere possession of an SC certificate is insufficient without authentic proof of religious adherence.
Anti-Conversion Laws in India
- Historical Context:
- Anti-conversion laws have existed since the pre-Independence era, with princely states like Raigarh (1936) and Udaipur (1946) enacting such legislation.
- Post-Independence, central anti-conversion bills introduced in 1954, 1960, and 1978 failed to gain legislative support.
- Modern Legislation:
- States like Orissa (1967), Madhya Pradesh (1968), and Arunachal Pradesh (1978) implemented anti-conversion laws, upheld by the Supreme Court in Rev. Stainislaus vs. State of Madhya Pradesh (1977).
- The court ruled that Article 25 does not extend to coercive or deceitful conversions, as such actions infringe on the freedom of conscience.
- Notable Precedents:
- Sapna Jacob Case (1993): Courts can examine the intent behind conversions but not the depth of an individual’s faith.
- Hadiya vs. Ashokan (2018): Affirmed the right to freely choose one’s faith, free from coercion or deceit.
Conclusion
- The Supreme Court’s ruling underscores the need to safeguard reservation policies from misuse while respecting the constitutional right to freedom of religion.
- The judgment balances the protection of genuine social justice measures with the prevention of fraudulent claims, ensuring that the intended beneficiaries of reservations are not deprived.
Stories of Women Who Helped Draft the Constitution of India
Why in News?
On Constitution Day, President Murmu highlighted the crucial role of 15 women in India’s Constituent Assembly, who contributed significantly to debates on gender, caste, and social justice, reflecting diverse perspectives.
Ammu Swaminathan (1894–1978): Voice for Gender Equality
- Background: Hailing from Palakkad, Kerala, Ammu Swaminathan married at a young age but ensured her independence within the marriage. She was the mother of Captain Lakshmi Sahgal of the INA.
- Political Journey: Inspired by restrictive practices like widowhood, she joined politics and contested on a Congress ticket.
- Role in the Assembly: Swaminathan championed gender equality and supported the Hindu Code Bill despite opposition.
- Later Contributions: Post-independence, she was elected from Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, and served as a goodwill ambassador to Russia, China, and the U.S.
Annie Mascarene (1902–1963): Advocate for Universal Suffrage
- Background: Born into a Latin Christian family in Travancore, Mascarene overcame societal barriers to excel academically and study law.
- Political Activism: She joined the Travancore State Congress and promoted universal adult franchise, enduring hostility from opponents.
- Role in the Assembly: Advocated for a strong central government while supporting local autonomy.
- Notable Achievement: Became the first woman to win a parliamentary seat as an independent candidate in 1952.
Begum Qudsia Aizaz Rasul (1909–2001): Trailblazer in Politics
- Background: Born into a royal family in Punjab, she defied societal norms by pursuing education and discarding purdah after marriage.
- Political Stance: Initially aligned with the Muslim League, she later opposed separate electorates and chose to remain in India post-Partition.
- Legacy: A member of the Rajya Sabha, she also worked to promote women’s hockey and social welfare.
Dakshayani Velayudhan (1912–1978): Champion of Dalit Rights
- Background: The first Dalit woman to graduate in science in Cochin, Dakshayani belonged to the Pulaya community and faced severe caste-based discrimination.
- Political Role: Elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1946, she opposed separate electorates for Dalits, advocating for unity and nationalism.
- Challenges: Financial constraints limited her political career, but she remained a dedicated activist for Dalit rights.
Renuka Ray (1904–1997): Advocate for Women’s Empowerment
- Background: Born in Pabna (now in Bangladesh), Ray was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and actively participated in the freedom struggle.
- Advocacy: Focused on women’s rights, especially divorce and inheritance laws, and opposed reserved seats for women, believing they hindered progress.
- Political Career: Represented women’s organizations in the Central Legislative Assembly and later contributed to governance in Bengal.
Conclusion
The women of India’s Constituent Assembly were more than just participants—they were pioneers who shaped the nation’s foundational principles. Their unwavering commitment to equality and justice left an indelible mark on India’s democracy, serving as an inspiration for generations to come.
International Relations
Jaishankar: Stronger India-Mediterranean Relations Serve Both
Why in News?
At the 10th edition of the MED Mediterranean Dialogue in Rome, External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar highlighted the potential benefits of deepening India’s relations with the Mediterranean region.
About the Mediterranean Region
The Mediterranean spans Southern Europe, including countries like Spain, France, Italy, and Greece, North Africa, with nations such as Egypt, Libya, and Morocco, and parts of West Asia, including Turkey, Syria, and Israel. Historically, it has been a hub of global commerce, culture, and politics.
India-Mediterranean Relations
1. Historical Connections and Cultural Exchange:
India has a long history of interaction with Mediterranean civilizations, including the Greeks and Romans. The ancient port city of Muziris, located on India’s Malabar Coast, was a vital trade center where goods like spices, animals, and gold were exchanged. This rich history has fostered enduring cultural connections between India and the Mediterranean countries.
2. Strategic and Geopolitical Importance:
The Mediterranean’s strategic location connects Asia, Africa, and Europe, making it crucial for India’s geopolitical objectives. Its importance is reflected in India’s Indo-Pacific policy, which emphasizes a free, open, and inclusive region. The Mediterranean region thus plays a key role in strengthening India’s connectivity across continents.
3. Political and Defense Cooperation:
India’s political and defense ties with Mediterranean nations have grown stronger, marked by increased defense collaborations, joint military exercises, and security exchanges. Notably, India’s involvement in the I2U2 group—comprising India, Israel, the UAE, and the US—focuses on shared economic and security interests. India and Italy are enhancing defense cooperation through joint ventures, focusing on maritime security and defense technology.
4. Economic and Trade Relations:
India’s trade with Mediterranean countries has expanded, reaching around USD 80 billion annually. Key sectors driving this growth include energy, fertilizers, diamonds, defense, and water technology. Indian companies are also heavily involved in infrastructure projects like airports, ports, and railways, contributing to regional development.
5. Connectivity Initiatives:
A significant development in India’s relations with the Mediterranean is the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), launched in 2023. This initiative seeks to enhance connectivity between India, the Middle East, and Europe, with countries like the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Israel, and the EU playing pivotal roles.
6. Cultural and Diaspora Links:
The Mediterranean region is home to a notable Indian diaspora, with approximately 460,000 Indians residing there, many in Italy. This community plays a vital role in fostering cultural exchanges and strengthening bilateral relations.
Concerns Regarding India’s Influence in the Mediterranean Region
1. Geopolitical Stability:
The Mediterranean faces ongoing political instability, particularly in West Asia, with conflicts such as the Israel-Palestine issue and unrest in Syria and Libya. These conflicts present diplomatic challenges for India, especially in ensuring the success of the IMEC initiative, which requires overcoming regional tensions.
2. Energy Security:
The Mediterranean is vital for India’s energy security, as it is a key source of oil and gas imports. Ensuring the stability of energy supplies amidst regional instability is a critical concern. Furthermore, India’s growing interests in renewable energy, such as green hydrogen projects, require strong international partnerships.
3. Regional Conflicts and Security:
Piracy, illicit maritime activities, and regional conflicts in areas like Gaza and Lebanon are persistent security threats. India’s advocacy for a ceasefire in West Asia and support for a two-state solution in the Israel-Palestine conflict reflect its commitment to regional peace and stability. India also maintains a balanced approach by engaging with both Israel and Iran diplomatically.
Conclusion and Future Prospects
India’s engagement in the Mediterranean region spans economic, strategic, and cultural dimensions. To solidify its role, addressing challenges like geopolitical instability, economic integration, and energy security is essential. Through initiatives like the IMEC and continued diplomatic efforts, India can contribute significantly to the region’s stability and prosperity.
Environment
Between Hope and Hurdles on the High Seas
Why in News?
India’s signing of the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement has earned praise but also drawn skepticism on account of structural complexities and challenges.
Introduction
India’s recent signing of the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement, also known as the High Seas Treaty, has been widely celebrated as a significant step in ocean governance. The treaty seeks to conserve marine biodiversity, regulate marine genetic resources, and mitigate the harmful impacts of human activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). However, despite the treaty’s ambitious goals, its complex structure and potential challenges pose significant hurdles for effective implementation.
Objectives of the BBNJ Agreement
| Objective | Description |
|---|---|
| Conserve Marine Biodiversity | Establish marine protected areas (MPAs) in the high seas to safeguard ecosystems and species. |
| Marine Genetic Resources (MGRs) | Mandate the sharing of benefits from MGRs, such as bioprospecting, through a global fund. |
| Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) | Require EIAs for activities like mining or fishing that could harm marine environments. |
Structural and Political Challenges
Despite its noble intentions, the BBNJ Agreement faces several challenges that threaten its effectiveness:
1. Geopolitical Rivalries and Jurisdictional Overlaps
- Regional Conflicts: Disputes over maritime territories, particularly in the South China Sea, complicate consensus on creating Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Countries in this region are divided over whether such areas could infringe on their territorial rights and economic activities.
- Coastal States’ Concerns: Nations bordering the Bay of Bengal and other seas express concerns about the potential economic impact of MPAs on local communities who rely on marine resources.
2. Marine Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing
The treaty mandates that nations share the profits from the exploitation of marine genetic resources, which are crucial for bioengineering and pharmaceuticals. However, without robust accountability and enforcement mechanisms, wealthier nations might underreport their activities or fail to contribute fairly to the global fund.
3. Capacity Building and Technology Transfer
While the treaty calls for equitable partnerships in ocean science, it lacks enforceable measures to ensure that developing countries are not sidelined in research and technology. This asymmetry could perpetuate inequalities in maritime governance and research capabilities.
Limitations in the Treaty Framework
1. Narrow Focus on High Seas
- The treaty primarily addresses issues in international waters (ABNJ) without adequately considering the interconnectedness of marine ecosystems. Activities in Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) often affect the high seas, such as pollution from coastal states or overfishing that depletes transboundary species.
- The treaty does not address the environmental impacts of activities like oil and gas exploration within EEZs, which are a significant economic interest for coastal states.
2. Weak Enforcement Mechanisms
- The treaty lacks strong enforcement mechanisms, especially regarding the implementation of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs).
- Many coastal states are reluctant to accept international scrutiny of their EIAs, which further weakens the treaty’s potential to prevent environmental degradation.
Path Forward: Bridging the Divide
For the BBNJ Agreement to succeed, several actions are needed:
1. Integrated Maritime Governance Framework
There needs to be a shift towards an integrated approach that harmonizes high-seas governance with coastal regulations. This would involve aligning domestic laws with international norms and addressing cross-boundary issues such as pollution and overfishing.
2. Strengthening Political Consensus
A collective commitment among nations is crucial. Wealthier countries must provide financial and technical support to ensure that the benefits of the treaty are shared equitably, especially with developing nations.
3. Incentivizing Compliance
Coastal states, particularly in the Global South, need incentives to align their domestic regulations with international standards. This could include support for capacity-building, access to technology, and guaranteed economic benefits.
Conclusion
The BBNJ Agreement represents a critical step towards global ocean governance. However, its success will depend on overcoming substantial structural, political, and enforcement challenges. If these hurdles can be addressed, the treaty could play a transformative role in protecting the world’s oceans and ensuring the sustainable use of marine resources for future generations.
In Brief
Reang Community
Members of the Reang community have requested the government to recognize their language, Kaubru.
About the Reang Community
- The Reang, the second-largest tribal community in Tripura, have sought the declaration of Hojagiri Day as a state holiday.
- This day celebrates the traditional Hojagiri dance, a key cultural practice of the Reang.
- The Reang belong to one of India’s 75 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
- Kaubru, the language spoken by the Bru ethnic people, is an oral language used within this community.
- The Bru are indigenous to Southeast Asia, residing in countries like Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam. Their religion is predominantly Hindu, and their deities are closely associated with Hindu gods and goddesses.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
- The Dhebar Commission, established in 1973, created a category for Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), later expanded to 52 groups in 1975, with 23 more added in 1993. In 2006, these groups were re-designated as PVTGs.
- PVTGs are distinguished by their vulnerability due to factors such as geographic isolation, low literacy, a lack of access to modern technologies, and a reliance on hunting and pre-agricultural methods.
- According to the 2011 Census, Odisha has the largest population of PVTGs, followed by Madhya Pradesh.
Gelephu Mindfulness City
Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay introduced the Gelephu Mindfulness City (GMC) as the country’s largest “co-operative project” during the Global Conference of the International Co-operative Alliance in New Delhi.
About Gelephu Mindfulness City (GMC)
- GMC is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) in Bhutan, envisioned by King Jigme, combining economic development with mindfulness, sustainable living, and holistic values.
- Strategically located at the crossroads of South Asia, ASEAN, and China, GMC aims to be a hub for regional connectivity and economic exchange.
- It draws on Bhutan’s stable governance, rich spiritual heritage, and commitment to sustainability.
Importance
- GMC is expected to set a global benchmark for urban growth that harmonizes economic progress with cultural values and transparent governance.
- The city promises a secure and supportive environment for businesses and residents, while fostering sustainable development.
National Youth Parliament Scheme (NYPS)
The National Youth Parliament Scheme (NYPS) celebrated the fifth anniversary of its web portal.
About the National Youth Parliament Scheme (NYPS)
- Launched on November 26, 2019, by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs, the web portal aims to increase the reach of the Youth Parliament Programme to all educational institutions in India.
NYPS 2.0 Features
- Institution Participation: Enables educational institutions to organize Youth Parliament sessions (YPS).
- Group Participation: Allows formal or informal groups to conduct YPS nationwide.
- Individual Participation: Provides citizens an opportunity to participate in a quiz on “Bharatiya Democracy in Action.”
Hydrokinetic Turbine (SHKT) Technology
The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has recognized the Surface Hydrokinetic Turbine (SHKT) technology in the Hydro category.
About SHKT
SHKT generates electricity by utilizing the kinetic energy of flowing water, with no need for potential head, unlike traditional hydroelectric systems that rely on dams or weirs.
Significance
- SHKT is cost-effective, with a generation cost of ₹2-3 per unit.
- It offers benefits to both energy producers and consumers, with potential for large-scale renewable energy generation, boosting the power sector.
Central Electricity Authority (CEA)
- A statutory body under the Ministry of Power, CEA:
- Advises the government on electricity sector planning and management.
- Prepares the National Electricity Plan and Transmission Plan.
- Sets standards for electrical equipment and ensures grid stability.
Subhadra Yojana
The Chief Minister of Odisha has approved the Subhadra Yojana, aimed at empowering over 1 crore women by providing financial assistance of Rs. 10,000 annually, disbursed in two installments of Rs. 5,000 each. Additionally, 100 beneficiaries who engage in maximum digital transactions will receive an extra Rs. 500 as an incentive to promote digital literacy.
Eligibility Criteria
- Women aged between 21 and 60 years.
- Applicants must have a KYC-approved, Aadhaar/DBT-enabled bank account.
Implementation Process
- Beneficiaries will receive a Subhadra Debit Card.
- Women who are financially independent, taxpayers, or already receiving benefits from government schemes, or those earning Rs. 1,500 or more per month, are ineligible.
- No specific application deadline; registration will continue until all eligible beneficiaries are added.
- Payments of Rs. 5,000 will be made on Rakhi Purnima and International Women’s Day annually.
Financial Aspects
- The Odisha government has allocated Rs. 55,825 crore for the scheme, which emphasizes the importance of women as voters in the state.
- The scheme is modeled after the successful Mission Shakti Programme.
